At the base of these problems is the permissibility of corruption, which is arguably worse than corruption itself. The basis of this permissibility of corruption and of emulation lies precisely in notions of exceptionalism, exclusivity or in tribal, racial, ethnic or religious solidarities. Anyone who considers their own identity as superior, or inherently innocent, renders any wrongdoing (corruption) by in-group members as permissible. It is difficult for orthodox economics to explain the social and cultural permissibility of corruption. What we cannot escape is the deleterious effects of corruption across state, society and the political economy.
